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    16Dec, 2023
    A NEW STUDY FOUND THAT CHIA SEEDS ARE RICH IN NUTRIENTS AND MAY BE GOOD FOR HUMAN HEALTH

    Due to its high nutritional content, chia seeds are one of the superfoods that scientists, health lovers, and foodies are paying close attention to. A study that reveals the exceptional nutrient profile of these tiny seeds and suggests potential health advantages for humans has brought them more attention lately. This in-depth analysis delves into the depths of chia seeds’ nutritional richness, examines the findings of the most recent study, and explains how these underappreciated seeds may benefit overall health.

    Chia Seeds’ Nutrient Content: Piecing Together the Tapestry

     

    Prior to getting into the details of the most recent study, it is critical to comprehend the complex nutritional makeup that distinguishes chia seeds from other seeds.

    1. Supercharger of Proteins:

     

    Despite its little size, chia seeds have a high protein concentration. Rich in essential amino acids, they are a fantastic addition to plant-based and vegetarian diets. Protein is essential for the function of the immune system, muscle regeneration, and overall cellular health.

     

    2. The Fatty Acids Omega-3:

    Chia seeds are well known for having a high concentration of omega-3 fatty acids, including ALA (alpha-linolenic acid). Because they help reduce inflammation and maintain optimum heart function, omega-3 fatty acids are critical for cardiovascular health. A plant-based source of these important lipids are chia seeds.

    3. Crucial Micronutrients:

    Chia seeds provide an incredible amount of essential vitamins and minerals. In addition to supporting energy metabolism and bone health, the minerals calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and manganese also promote other physiological processes. Maintaining general health requires these micronutrients.

    4. An arsenal of antioxidants:

    Chia seeds are packed with antioxidants, including caffeic acid, quercetin, and chlorogenic acid respectively. Antioxidants reduce the risk of chronic disease development and advance cellular health in general by reducing oxidative stress.

    5. Fiber for Digestive Health System:

    Chia seeds are a great source of both soluble and insoluble dietary fiber. Apart from regulating blood sugar and cholesterol, soluble fiber also contributes to a feeling of fullness. Regular bowel movements are encouraged by insoluble fiber, which is good for the digestive system.

    6. Hydrophilic Characteristics:

     

    Chia seeds have a special hydrophilic quality that makes it possible for them to absorb and hold onto significant amounts of liquid, creating a gel-like consistency. This attribute has uses in cooking, but it also helps with hydration and might affect how full you feel after eating it.

    Recently Concealed Research: Chia Seeds’ Health Potential

    An important scientific finding that clarifies the possible health advantages of chia seed consumption is the study that was recently conducted on the seeds. Investigating the study’s methods, major conclusions, and wider ramifications for human health is essential to understanding its importance.

    1. Methodologies and Research Design:

     

    The research design is the cornerstone of any legitimate investigation. It’s possible that the new chia seed study used a multimodal strategy that included observational studies, clinical trials, and laboratory analysis.

    • Laboratory investigations: To establish the omega-3 fatty acid levels, protein content, and antioxidant presence of chia seeds, scientists most likely carried out extensive investigations in the lab.

    • Clinical experiments: To evaluate the physiological effects of chia seed ingestion, human experiments may have been carried out. It would have been possible to split the participants into groups so that some followed a strict routine and others added chia seeds to their diets.

    • Observational Studies: In these real-world contexts, trends and correlations between chia seed consumption and other health outcomes may have been investigated.

     

    2. Key Facts:

     

    The key to the latest study’s influence on our comprehension of the health advantages of chia seeds is found in its findings. Possible major discoveries could include the following, though the precise results would depend on the particulars of the investigation:

     

    • Weight management: Determining how chia seeds affect total calorie intake and how they affect feelings of fullness.

    • Blood Sugar Regulation: Examining how chia seeds affect glycemic management and insulin sensitivity.

    • Heart Health: Understanding the effects of chia seeds on blood pressure, cholesterol, and other heart-related indicators.

    • Inflammation and Antioxidant Activity: Evaluating chia seeds’ ability to reduce inflammation by adjusting oxidative stress.

    • Nutrient Absorption: Examining the efficiency with which the body takes up and applies the nutrients included in chia seeds.

     

    3. Consequences for Human Health: A Comprehensive Approach:

     

     

    The study’s conclusions have applications for human health that go beyond the realm of the lab and clinic.

     

    • Weight control Strategies: By being aware of how satiety and calorie intake are affected, chia seeds may be positioned as a weight control ally. One such recommendation is to incorporate chia seeds into meals in order to promote a healthy diet.

    • Impacts on Cardiovascular Health: Should the study show beneficial impacts on cardiovascular health, this could result in suggestions for people wishing to promote heart health organically. Chia seeds could become a mainstay in diets meant to avoid heart-related problems.

    • Blood Sugar Control: The study’s conclusions may highlight the significance of chia seeds in blood sugar regulation for people who are managing or trying to avoid diabetes. This can result in dietary suggestions for people looking for all-natural glycemic management methods.

    • Anti-Inflammatory Dietary Options: People who want to lessen inflammation in their bodies may benefit from the study’s investigation of anti-inflammatory qualities. Chia seeds may be included in diets intended for the treatment of inflammatory disorders.

    • Optimizing Nutrient Intake: Knowledge about how nutrients are absorbed may help people make recommendations for how to get the most out of their diet. Chia seeds may be recommended as a part of diets meant to meet particular needs for micronutrients.

    The consequences of these findings are not limited to individuals; they also hold significance for healthcare practitioners, dietitians, and lawmakers who formulate public health policies.

     

    Applications in Public Health and Culinary Arts:

     

    1. Public health initiatives:

     

    The study’s conclusions might affect public health initiatives meant to improve population health in general. Dietary guidelines that advocate consuming foods high in nutrients, like chia seeds, may eventually find their way into more comprehensive treatment programs for common health issues.

    2. Innovation in Culinary Arts:

    The results of the study may inspire innovative solutions in the culinary industry. In order to satisfy consumers’ dietary needs as well as their palates, chefs and food producers could experiment with novel ways to include chia seeds in various recipes. Chia seeds have the potential to become a mainstay in cooking, enhancing both gastronomic diversity and health.

    3. Education-related campaigns:

    The results of the study may be used to guide the development of educational programs that raise public awareness of the health benefits of chia seeds. People may be able to make informed dietary choices if they are informed about their nutritional profile and any potential connections to certain health outcomes.

    Knowledge and Behavior of Consumers:

    1. Taking Informed Decisions

    Customers are able to actively search for products that include these tiny seeds as the benefits of chia seeds become more familiar. In restaurants and retail establishments, patrons can select meals according to their nutritional goals and improved understanding.

     

    2. Formulation of Recipes

    When creating recipes, chia seeds can be a helpful component for home cooks and food bloggers. Chia seeds have the potential to become a household staple in kitchens, appearing in everything from vibrant salads to inventive desserts and smoothie bowls that boost energy. People may be inspired to experiment in the kitchen and find new ways to incorporate chia seeds into their everyday meals by the study’s findings.

    Environmental Factors to Be Considered

    1. Agriculture that is sustainable:

    Concerns concerning the sustainability and cultivation of chia seeds are brought up by their rising popularity. The consequences of the study may go beyond health concerns to include environmental awareness. Water-efficient cultivation and ethical sourcing are two examples of sustainable agriculture techniques for chia seeds that could become focal points in the larger discussion about responsible food production.

    2. Awareness of Carbon Footprint:

    The study’s conclusions might make customers think twice about the carbon impact of producing and distributing chia seeds as they grow more ecologically conscious. This knowledge may lead to a change in consumer preference for eco-friendly products and services.

    Integrating into Practices of Holistic Wellness:

    1. Holistic Nutrition and Health Practices:

    The connection between mental, emotional, and physical health is emphasized by holistic wellness. This comprehensive approach is supported by the chia seed study, which illustrates how a single food item can benefit several aspects of health. Chia seeds can be incorporated into meal plans as part of a larger plan for people who want overall health.

    2. Strategies for Preventive Health:

    The study’s conclusions might have a big impact on preventative health strategies. Chia seeds can be included in diets as a proactive way to stop certain disorders from developing, as opposed to just treating current health problems. This emphasis on prevention is in line with a larger trend in healthcare that places more emphasis on lifestyle decisions for long-term health.

    Prospective Studies and Ongoing Investigations:

    Even though the new study provides insightful information, it is important to recognize that nutritional science is a constantly evolving discipline. The chia seed study is merely a starting point, raising other queries and lines of inquiry:

    1. Mechanisms of Action:

    Further research is warranted to fully understand the precise processes by which chia seeds exert their health advantages. Our comprehension of the physiological effects of chia seeds may be improved by investigating how the body uses and absorbs the nutrients from them, as well as by discovering the bioactive substances that have health benefits.

    2. Extended Research:

    Extensive research should be conducted on the long-term effects of chia seed ingestion. Although research with short durations offer significant insights, studies with longer durations may disclose long-term health advantages, possible hazards, and alterations in health results.

    3. Research on Populations:

    Dietary interventions may elicit differing responses from various groups. Research on particular populations—such as age groups, people with particular medical issues, or dietary customs from different cultures—can offer specialized insights into the potential advantages of chia seeds.

    4. Dosing-Response Interactions

    It’s critical to ascertain the ideal ingestion levels for health advantages. Future research on dose-response connections should examine whether there is a recommended daily intake of chia seeds for various health outcomes and whether these effects alter depending on personal variables.

    5. Comparative Analysis:

    Comparative research between chia seeds and other nutrient-dense foods or supplements might help clarify the benefits of chia seeds. Knowing how chia seeds compare to established dietary standards or other sources of essential components provides a more nuanced perspective.

    Conclusion

    In conclusion, the latest research on chia seeds demonstrates an intriguing relationship between science, nutrition, and human health. Chia seeds, once a staple of antiquity, are making a comeback that intrigues both scientists and health-conscious individuals.

    Together with the new research findings, a thorough investigation of the nutrient richness of chia seeds presents a convincing picture of the potential benefits these seeds may have for human health. Chia seeds prove to be a flexible and affordable supplement to a diet that prioritizes health, offering advantages such as improved blood circulation, reduced weight, blood sugar control, and anti-inflammatory characteristics.

    The results of this study highlight the dynamic character of nutritional science as they have implications for public knowledge, culinary practices, and even environmental considerations. Chia seeds are a simple-looking snack that can remind us of the richness and depth that can be found in commonplace meals.

    As we carry out this research, it is imperative that we approach the topic with discernment and inquiry. Despite the fact that chia seeds have a lot of potential as a superfood, additional study on the impact of chia seeds on human health is likely to be discovered because nutritional science is a dynamic area.

    Chia seeds can be used to smoothies, savory foods, and yogurt bowls as a mark of modern nutritional consciousness. They are no longer only significant historically. The new research acts as a beacon, making us rethink the significance of these little seeds and sparking a broader conversation about the complex interplay between our dietary choices and overall health.

     

    15Dec, 2023
    UNCOVERING OPTIMAL HEALTH: THE ASTONISHING ADVANTAGES OF VITAMIN D APART FROM STRONG BONES

    Open-Up the Entire Spectrum: Vitamin D Supplements and Their All-Inclusive Impact on Health

    While many people are aware of the role vitamin D plays in maintaining strong bones, its history extends well beyond the skeletal system. In-depth discussion of vitamin D supplement benefits and how they promote optimal health and wellness will be provided in this comprehensive guide.

    The Foundation: Vitamin D and Bone Health

    vitamin-D

     

    To begin with, let’s address the most significant component of vitamin D’s reputation: the constant support it provides for our bones. For the absorption of calcium and phosphorus—two elements required for the mineralization of bones—fat-soluble vitamin D is critical. We can reduce our risk of fractures and diseases like osteoporosis by making sure our bodies get adequate sunlight or by strengthening our skeletal structure with vitamin D supplements.

    But what happens when our eyes look farther than our skeletons? As it happens, vitamin D plays a major role in several aspects of human health.

    1. Guardian of the immune system

    immune-system

    Recent research has led scientists to believe that vitamin D is now a friend of the immune system. In order to maintain the body’s defenses against diseases and infections, this vitamin is crucial for controlling immunological responses. Research suggests that maintaining normal levels of vitamin D may reduce the likelihood of respiratory infections, autoimmune illnesses, and other immune-related conditions. By fortifying our immune system, vitamin D intervenes to safeguard our overall well-being.

    2. Fueling the Heart: Advantages for Cardiovascular Health

    The benefits of vitamin D also extend to our hearts, which beat nonstop to keep us alive. Research suggests that this vitamin enhances vascular function, lowers inflammation, and regulates blood pressure to support cardiovascular health. As we consider the wider ramifications, it is clear that having enough vitamin D may help to build our bones as well as increase the cardiovascular system’s resistance.

    3. Mental Health: The Role of Vitamin D

    Research interest is growing in the complex relationship between vitamin D and mental health. Mood disorders such as depression and seasonal affective disorder (SAD) have been associated with low levels of vitamin D. The data indicates that maintaining adequate levels of Vitamin D may contribute to sustaining mental well-being, however the precise pathways are still being explored. Might vitamin sunlight act as a mood enhancer in its own right? Significant ramifications result from the persuasive science.

    4. A Protection From Cancer? Investigating Preventive Features

    The fight against cancer is an ongoing one, and new research suggests that vitamin D may be helpful in preventing the disease. According to specific research, preserving adequate amounts of vitamin D may lower the chance of developing several malignancies, such as colon, prostate, and breast cancer. The possibility that vitamin D functions as a natural cancer defense adds another dimension to the vitamin’s comprehensive effects on health, even as researchers continue to investigate these relationships.

    5. Balanced Metabolism: Vitamin D and Controlling Weight

    When we explore the field of metabolic health, vitamin D becomes involved in the complex regulation of our body’s systems. According to certain studies, having enough vitamin D may help control insulin sensitivity, which may have an impact on blood sugar regulation. A healthy weight may also be easier to maintain for those who get enough vitamin D. One fascinating feature of vitamin D’s holistic influence is the connection to metabolic equilibrium, albeit the exact mechanisms underlying this connection are still being investigated.

     

    Overcoming Deficiency: The Quiet Struggle

    Notwithstanding these encouraging findings, it is imperative to recognize the widespread problem of vitamin D insufficiency. For a large fraction of the population, low levels of Vitamin D are caused by modern lifestyles, little sun exposure, and dietary choices. The first stage in proactive health management is identifying the symptoms of deficiency, which include weariness, muscle weakness, and weakened immune system.

     

    Examining Further: Vitamin D’s Function in Hormonal Balance


    The impact of vitamin D on hormonal balance is another fascinating aspect we learn about as we continue our exploration of the vitamin. Recent research indicates that vitamin D might be involved in the regulation of many hormones in the body. This includes chemicals that affect stress reactions, energy levels, and mood management like serotonin. The complex relationship that exists between Vitamin D and hormones highlights the potential of this nutrient as a modulator of mental and emotional health in addition to physical health.

     

    Utilizing Vitamin D’s Power for Skin Health


    The wonders of Vitamin D also extend to our greatest organ, the skin. In addition to its internal functions, vitamin D supports skin health by encouraging cell turnover and helping to restore damaged skin. Conditions include eczema, psoriasis, and acne may improve in those with adequate vitamin D levels. The many advantages that Vitamin D provides are enhanced by the positive relationship it has with skin health.

     

    Vitamin D and Lifespan: An Interesting Association to Research


    The intriguing possibility that Vitamin D affects longevity is becoming more and more prominent as scientific research progresses. A longer and more active life may be possible because to vitamin D’s capacity to improve general health, even though it is not a miraculous potion that may grant immortality. Vitamin D is emerging as a hopeful ingredient in the quest for a longer and presumably healthier life as researchers dive into the molecular causes behind aging.

     

    Unlocking Genetic Potential: Expression of Genes and Vitamin D


    There is growing interest in the connection between vitamin D and gene expression. According to research, vitamin D may affect the expression of genes linked to a number of physiological processes, such as inflammation, cell division, and immunological function. Knowing how vitamin D interacts with our genetic composition creates opportunities for tailored healthcare, enabling people to maximize their well-being according to their own genetic profile.

     

    Overcoming Skepticism: Scientific Views on the Advantages of Vitamin D


    It’s only right to address the skepticism that occasionally accompanies conversations regarding the numerous advantages of vitamin D. While continuous study keeps expanding our knowledge, some detractors contend that the data is still insufficiently strong to substantiate every benefit that has been proposed. It’s critical to approach the subject objectively, recognizing the need for additional research as well as the encouraging results.

     

    Useful Advice for Raising Your Life’s Vitamin D Levels


    Let’s move from theory to practice as we wrap up this investigation. How do you make sure that the foundation of your health path is Vitamin D?
    – Sun Exposure: Try to get frequent, moderate sun exposure, especially in the afternoon and evening when the sun is at its highest. Your skin may now naturally manufacture vitamin D as a result.
    – Dietary Sources: Include foods high in vitamin D in your diet, such as egg yolks, dairy products with added vitamin D, and fatty fish like salmon and mackerel.
    – Supplementation: Take into account vitamin D supplements if natural sources are not viable or adequate. See a medical practitioner to get the right dosage for your unique requirements.
    – Regular Health Check-ups: Regular blood tests to measure your vitamin D levels allow you to modify your supplement regimen or lifestyle choices as necessary.
    – Balanced Lifestyle: Take a comprehensive approach to your health, including regular exercise, a healthy diet, stress reduction, and enough sleep. The advantages of vitamin D are enhanced by certain lifestyle choices.

     

    Concluding Remarks: Seizing the Sun Vitamin to Achieve a Better Future


    Vitamin D is a colorful thread that weaves across many facets of our well-being in the big scheme of health and wellness. The intricate benefits of Vitamin D include immune support, hormone balance, healthy skin, strong bones, and possibly even longer life. These all call into question the need of this essential nutrient.
    Let vitamin D be our beacon of hope as we negotiate the challenges of contemporary living. It is a source of sustenance for our body and soul. By raising our level of awareness, educating ourselves, and making proactive health decisions, we may fully reap the benefits of vitamin D supplements in our life.

    We are grateful that you have joined us on this long exploration. I hope the light of vitamin D shines on your health path and helps you live a life full of energy, resiliency, and overall well being.

    16Nov, 2023
    TYPES OF VACCINES AND HOW THEY ARE MADE?

    What is a vaccine?

    A vaccine is known as a biological medicine which provides     active acquired immunity to a particular infectious disease. It typically contains an agent which resembles a disease-causing microorganism and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins, or one of its surface proteins. It trains the body’s immune system to fight against a disease which has not come into contact with before. Generally, rather than treat a disease, vaccines are designed to prevent disease, once you have caught it by working with your body’s natural defenses to build protection. According to the WHO, there are vaccines to prevent more than 20 life-threatening diseases including diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, influenza and measles.

    They underpin global health security and will be a vital tool in the battle against antimicrobial resistance.

    What is vaccination?

    Vaccination is the process of administration of a vaccine to help the immune system to develop immunity from a particular disease. It is a safe, simple and effective method of protecting people against harmful diseases, before they come into contact with them. Interestingly, it uses the body’s natural defenses to build resistance against specific infections and eventually makes the immune system stronger. After vaccination, your immune system is trained to create antibodies, similarly it does when it is exposed to a disease. But since vaccines contain only killed or weakened forms of the microbe like viruses or bacteria, they do not cause the disease or put people at risk of its complications.

    There are several routes of vaccine administration. They are,

    1. By mouth (Oral)
    2. By injection (intramuscular, intradermal, subcutaneous)
    3. By puncture
    4. By transdermal 
    5. By intranasal
    1. By mouth (Oral)

    Oral vaccination typically works by generating a large amount of  secretory IgA (sIgA), which plays a major role in mucosal defense against pathogens that enter the body through mucosal surfaces and cause diseases of the respiratory, intestinal and genital tracts. Oral vaccines are safe, easy and efficient to administer. And also they are convenient for all ages. They have been successfully developed to protect from many oral transmitted infectious diseases. Some well known oral vaccines are the oral polio vaccine (OPV), rotavirus, cholera and some typhoid vaccines. Most of the currently available oral vaccines are based on heat-killed or  attenuated pathogens. The disadvantage of these vaccines is that they do not  provoke a sufficient immune response. As a result of that they do not result in pathogen persistence and disease progression in immunocompromised individuals.

    1. By injection (intravenous, intramuscular, intradermal, subcutaneous)

    Most vaccines are given by using this method. Some of the advantages of vaccination by injections are their results have been proven, the protection is long-term and the availability of vaccines are high. The main drawback of these vaccines are their challenging administration process. The correct needle size should be chosen, when administering a vaccine by injection.

    Intravenous (IV) injections. An IV injection is the fastest way to inject a medication and involves using a syringe to inject a medication directly into a vein. …

    Intramuscular (IM) injections are administered into the muscle through the skin and  subcutaneous tissue. This method allows the medication to be absorbed into the bloodstream quickly. Intramuscular injections are used when other types of delivery methods are not recommended. Hepatitis A and B, Hib are examples for intramuscular injections. When administering an intramuscular injection, a 90° angle is used and all of the vaccine is injected in the muscle tissue by 1 inch if possible.

    Intradermal (ID) injections are administered into the dermis, just below the epidermis. Since they provide a local and very little systemic effect, they are commonly used for tuberculin skin testing. Other than that they can also be used for  allergy testing and local  anesthetics. When administering an intradermal injection, a 25- gauge or smaller needle is inserted just under the epidermis at an angle of approximately 10°.

    Subcutaneous (SC) injections are administered into the fatty tissue found below the dermis and above muscle tissue. A SC injection is known as the best for giving certain medicines such as Insulin. IPV, MMR and VAR are examples for subcutaneous injections. When administering a subcutaneousinjection the needle should be inserted at a 45 to 90° angle to the pinched-up skin. And it is important that the needle is completely covered by skin.

    1. By puncture

    There are 2 main methods called scratch method and multiple puncture method.  The multiple puncture method has been recommended as the method of choice for smallpox vaccination and BCG vaccination for infants.

    1. By transdermal 

    Recently, transdermal techniques have been investigated for vaccines including COVID-19. This route offers an improved vaccine administration. Since it targets potent immune cell populations of the skin, it may lead to a strong immune response at much lower doses when compared with an injectable vaccine. The human skin is composed of two layers named epidermis and dermis and they are populated by dendritic cells (DCs), which are known as potent antigen-presenting cells (APCs). “Transcutaneous immunization has therefore become an attractive and alternative route for vaccination. Techniques such as sonophoresis, microneedle-assisted delivery, iontophoresis, and elastic liposomes are among those being used and developed for transdermal vaccine delivery.

    1. By intranasal

    Intranasal vaccines are administered into each nostril using a manufacturer-filled nasal sprayer. Here, the patient asked to be seated in an upright position and instructed to breathe normally. In order to prevent  inadvertent movement, the provider should gently place a hand behind the patient’s head. Proper hand hygiene (using gloves etc.) should be performed to administer the vaccine. Even Though the patient coughs, sneezes, or expels the dose in any other way, the dose does not need to be repeated. The influenza vaccines FluMist/Fluenz™ and the Nasovac™ live attenuated vaccine are two of the licensed intranasal vaccines for humans.

    How are vaccines made?

    There are different types of vaccines. But usually there is one thing in common among them. That is they are  inherently biological. Vaccines are made up of whole bacteria or viruses, or parts of them, often a protein or sugar. These active components of the vaccine, called antigens, are what trigger an immune response when in the body. Vaccines are known as biological products. So, most of the conventional viral vaccines need to be grown on biological material. As an example,

    1. chicken eggs with influenza vaccines
    2. mammalian cells with hepatitis A vaccines 
    3. yeast for hepatitis B vaccines

    This process is somewhat laborious and slow. For example, when developing the flu vaccines, firstly, the live virus is injected into an embryonated egg. Then the virus replicates and the viral material is collected and followed by purification and inactivation. Newer RNA vaccine production by DNA template is much cheaper and faster than conventional vaccine production.

    Vaccines are made with complex biological molecules which are inherently unstable and as a result of that, they are prone to degradation if left on their own. In order to avoid this, vaccines usually contain a few additives. This helps the vaccine to stay safe and effective from the manufacturing to their point of use. These additives contain several ingredients including preservatives, stabilizers, surfactants, diluents, residuals and adjuvants. Preservatives stop the vaccine from being contaminated once the vial has been opened while stabilizers stop any chemical reactions from happening. Sugar (e.g. lactose) or gelatin are two examples for stabilizers. Normally surfactants stop the components of the vaccine from clumping together. Diluents are liquid components which are used to dilute a vaccine to the correct concentration and sterile water is often used as diluent. Residuals are the components which are not deliberately added to vaccines. They are considered as leftover traces of the ingredients of the vaccine, and yeast or egg protein are some examples for residuals. Some of the vacancies contain adjuvants which boost the immune response to the vaccine. This is done either by ensuring the vaccine’s prolonged availability at the injection site or by stimulating local immune cells. When adjuvants are used, a lower dose of the vaccine needs to be used. Aluminium, which is below the threshold value of safety, is known as a common adjuvant in vaccines.

    How do vaccines work?
    Vaccines generally work by stimulating a response from the immune system against a virus or bacterium. As a result of this a ‘memory’ is created in the immune system and this immune memory allows the body to ‘remember’ a specific pathogen such as virus or bacterium. So that the body can protect itself against this virus or bacterium and prevent disease that it causes. As mentioned before most vaccines contain a weakened or an inactivated (killed) form of a virus or bacterium that cannot cause disease. This is known as an antigen.

    This antigen is recognized as foreign by the immune system when a person gets a vaccine. As a result of this, the immune cells are activated and they kill the disease-causing virus or bacterium and make antibodies against it. So, the immune cells – called T-cells and B-cells – in the blood, in the bone marrow and throughout the body are activated. This helps the immune system to remember if the person comes into contact with the actual virus or bacteria later. It can then produce the right antibodies and activate the right immune cells quickly, to kill the virus or bacterium. Eventually this protects the person from the disease.

    Different vaccines bring about different levels of protection. How long protection lasts also depends on the disease it protects against. Some vaccines can only protect against a disease for a short period and may need booster doses; for others, immunity can last a lifetime.

    Most importantly, vaccination does not only protect the ones who have received a vaccine. It also indirectly protects unvaccinated people in the community including children who are too young to be vaccinated or people with weakened immune systems through decreasing the risk of being exposed to infection. In order to generate this community immunity (herd immunity) it is important to vaccinate enough people in an area. In contrast, people who gain immunity by getting the actual disease can expose other people to the disease while putting themselves at risk of serious complications from the disease.

    How effective is vaccination?

    In order to measure the efficacy of a vaccine, a controlled clinical trial should be carried out. Then the ratio of developing the ‘outcome of interest’ (usually disease) among the vaccinated people is compared with that of among the people who got the placebo (dummy vaccine). In order to calculate the relative risk of getting sick the numbers of sick people in each group are compared once the study is complete. This depends on whether or not the subjects received the vaccine. Through this the efficacy can be taken as a measure of how much the vaccine lowered the risk of getting sick. A lot fewer people in the group who received the vaccine should become sick than the people who received the placebo if a vaccine has high efficacy.

    Through the vaccine effectiveness someone can take a measurement of how well vaccines work in the real world. Even though clinical trials include a wide range of people including a broad age range, both sexes, different ethnicities and people with known medical conditions, still they cannot be considered as a perfect representation of the whole population. Since the efficacy observed in clinical trials applies to specific outcomes in a clinical trial, effectiveness in the real life conditions can differ from the efficacy measured in a trial.   So, the efficacy of vaccination for a much bigger and more variable population can’t be predicted exactly. 

    Types of vaccines

    1. Live attenuated Vaccines (LAV)
    2. Inactivated Vaccines (Killed Antigen)
    3. Subunit Vaccines (Purified Antigen)
    4. Toxoid Vaccines (Inactivated Toxins)
    5. DNA / RNA Vaccines 

    Live attenuated Vaccines (LAV)

    A weakened form of the disease-caused pathogen (bacteria or virus) is used in live- attenuated vaccines. This weakening is done by its genetic code alteration to prevent the rapid replication of the pathogen in human cells. Due to this weakening  the pathogen no longer can cause the disease. But still the immune system is able to observe the morphology of the virus and create a long-lasting immune response. When considering COVID-19 vaccines, live- attenuated vaccines which contain the SARS-CoV2 virus have not been focussed by most scientists. Instead, they have tested previously generated live- attenuated viruses including the common cold and the measles virus which control the genetic code of the virus to display the key SARS-CoV2 spike protein. This is known as a subtype of live- attenuated vaccines called a viral-vector vaccine. Some of the examples for live- attenuated vaccines are MMR, Rotavirus, Chickenpox and Yellow fever vaccines.

    Inactivated Vaccines (Killed Antigen)

    Inactivated vaccines use a dead form of the disease caused germ which is killed by using heat and/or chemicals. Similar to the live- attenuated vaccine, the inactivated germ shows the immune system what the germ looks like without making the patient sick. Generally, the live- attenuated vaccine is stronger than an inactivated vaccine. So, an inactivated vaccine may require booster shots over time. Clinical trials of inactivated COVID-19 vaccines have tested for inactivated SARS-CoV2 virus. Hepatitis A, Flu, Polio and Rabies are some examples for Inactivated vaccines.

    Subunit Vaccines (Purified Antigen)

    The subunit vaccines contain only a key piece of the germ including protein or sugar which causes the disease and when the immune system contacts it, a strong immune response is developed. Generally, this piece is on the outer surface of the germ and for the effective use of these vaccines, it is important to identify the correct piece even though it is not trivial. When considering the COVID-19 subunit vaccines, scientists focused both on the spike, “S” protein which sticks out on the surface of the SARS-CoV2 virus and specific subunit vaccines which use virus-like particles (VLP) in order to display the subunit to the immune system. These particles contain a membrane, just as the actual SARS-CoV2 virus. Since these virus-like particles (VLP) have no genetic code within, they are not infectious. But the particles hold many subunits together which helps the immune system to identify the subunit. Some of the examples for subunit vaccines are Hepatitis B, HPV and Shingles.

    Toxoid Vaccine (Inactivated Toxins)

    Toxoid vaccines contain toxoids (as antigens) which induce an immune response against specific bacterial diseases including tetanus and diphtheria. Usually, they are known as extremely effective and safe vaccines against these bacterial infections since they give a long-lasting immunity which is induced by a course of toxoid vaccines. This causes an immune response against weakened versions of specific bacterial toxins which are known as toxoids. The body forms an immune response to the original toxin (maintained immunogenicity), by using toxoids. But the toxoid cannot lead to any toxicity or toxin-induced disease since the toxoid is a weakened form of the toxin. Especially, compared with other vaccines, toxoid vaccines have been identified as  more stable and less susceptible to damage caused by temperature, humidity, or light.

    DNA / RNA Vaccines 

    In a cell, protein production can be divided into two parts as transcription and translation. Firstly, DNA is transcribed into RNA and then translated into protein. A DNA or RNA vaccine is a type of a subunit vaccine, but the difference is instead of introducing a subunit (protein) into the body, this vaccine provides the specific genetic code (DNA or RNA) for the cells in order to produce the subunit itself. Since RNA or DNA can be produced more easily and inexpensively in a laboratory compared to a subunit, it is a great benefit. Other than that, RNA vaccines have the added advantage of no risk that the RNA will integrate into the patient’s own genetic code which could not happen with a DNA vaccine. When talking about the United States, currently they do not use any DNA or RNA vaccines because the technology is new. These vaccines have presented a relatively simple and exciting way to develop a COVID-19 vaccine.

    What is a Covid-19 vaccine?

    Types of Covid-19 vaccines

    1. Attenuated Vaccines
    2. Genetic Vaccines
    3. Protein Vaccines
    4. Viral-vector Vaccines

    Attenuated vaccines for COVID-19

    This type of vaccine contains the weakened SARS-CoV-2 virus. This  is recognized by the immune system to trigger a response without causing COVID-19 illness. This response builds immune memory which enables the body to fight off SARS-CoV-2 in future. Attenuated vaccine is considered as a well-known approach for COVID-19 vaccines. But it requires time and extensive testing. The immune response generated by the  attenuated vaccine  resembles the natural infection.

    Genetic vaccines for COVID-19

    The vaccine contains a segment of genetic material of the SARS-CoV-2 virus which codes for a specific protein. This can be DNA or RNA. When the vaccine is administered, body cells use the genetic material from the vaccine to make the SARS-CoV-2 protein, which is recognised by the immune system to trigger a specific response. This response builds immune memory which enables the body to fight against the SARS-CoV-2 in future. The genetic material, RNA in Moderna and Pfizer/BioNTech vaccine, codes for a specific viral protein. The advantages of genetic vaccines are their low cost and fast development. But they may need to be stored at specific low temperatures. CureVac, Inovio Pharmaceuticals are still in clinical trials for genetic vaccines for COVID-19.

    Inactivated vaccines for COVID-19

    This type of vaccine contains the killed SARS-CoV-2 virus, which is recognised by the immune system in order to trigger a response without causing COVID-19 illness. As a result of this response, immune memory is built, so the body can fight off SARS-CoV-2 in future. In order to boost the immune response this vaccine may need to be administered with an adjuvant. Other than COVID-19, these inactivated vaccines are used in humans for influenza diseases. Sinovac, Sinopharm, Bharat Biotech are some of the approved inactivated vaccines for COVID-19. Shifa-Pharmed, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences have also developed inactivated vaccines for COVID-19.

    Viral vector vaccines for COVID-19

    The University of Oxford/AstraZeneca vaccine uses this technology to protect against COVID-19. This type of vaccine uses an unrelated harmless virus which is modified to deliver SARS-CoV-2 genetic material. This delivery virus is known as the viral vector. After the administration, body cells produce a specific viral protein using the genetic material to produce a specific viral protein, which is recognised by the immune system and triggers a response. This response builds immune memory, which enables the body to fight off the virus in future. The advantage of viral vector vaccines is that they generate a strong immune response while they may need to be stored at specific low temperatures.  Other than COVID-19, these viral vector vaccines are used in humans for Ebola virus. AstraZeneca/Oxford are some of the approved viral vector vaccines for COVID-19 in the United Kingdom and United States. Apart from that Jannsen, CanSino, Gamaleya viral vector vaccines have been approved for COVID-19 in other areas of the world.

    Protein vaccines for COVID-19

    This type of vaccine contains proteins from the SARS-CoV-2 virus, which are recognised by the immune system in order to trigger a response. As a result, this response builds immune memory, which helps the body to fight off SARS-CoV-2 in future. The proteins used in protein vaccines can be whole proteins, protein fragments, or many protein molecules packed into nanoparticles. This type of vaccine has good previous safety records and they are usually administered with an adjuvant to boost immune response. Other than COVID-19, these protein vaccines are used in humans against Hepatitis B virus. Novavax and Sanofi/GSK have developed protein vaccines for COVID-19.